A (credit rating)

An A credit rating is given to borrowers that are considered to have a strong ability to meet their financial commitments. However, they might be more affected by changes in circumstances or economic conditions than borrowers with higher ratings.

AA (credit rating)

An AA credit rating signals a very strong capacity to meet financial commitments. It's one notch below the highest AAA rating, showing high creditworthiness. While highly reliable, borrowers with an AA rating face slightly more risk than those rated AAA, especially in challenging economic conditions.Learn more

AAA (credit rating)

An AAA credit rating represents the highest level of creditworthiness. It indicates an exceptional ability to meet financial commitments, making it the safest investment grade. Borrowers with AAA ratings are considered to have the strongest capacity to withstand economic challenges and maintain their obligations.

Abnormal return

An abnormal return is the difference between an investment's expected return and the actual return. It indicates how much better or worse the investment did compared to what was anticipated, revealing its performance relative to market expectations.

Absolute return funds

Absolute return funds are investment funds designed to make money in all market conditions. They focus on returns rather than trying to outperform the market, and employ a range of strategies - like short selling - in an aim to profit regardless of market direction.

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Accelerated monitoring fees

Accelerated monitoring fees are charges a company pays in advance to private equity advisors for ongoing services, typically triggered when the company is sold or goes public. This upfront payment covers future services that were supposed to be provided over several years.

Accelerated Return Note

An accelerated return note is a financial product that offers potentially higher returns than a specific asset's performance. If the asset does well, investors get increased gains quickly. However, there's a risk of losing money if the asset performs poorly, making it a high-reward but risky investment.

Accounting Currency

Accounting currency is the currency that a company uses in its bookkeeping. While accounting currency may differ from operational currency - i.e. the currency in which a company transacts day-to-day business - it is the main currency for recording transactions and reporting results.

Accounting Insolvency

Accounting insolvency occurs when a company's liabilities exceed its assets on the balance sheet, indicating it owes more than it owns. It's a financial condition in which the company can't cover its debts with its current assets, suggesting potential financial trouble.

Accounting liquidity

Accounting liquidity measures how quickly a company can pay off its short-term debts using available assets. High liquidity means that a company can easily meet its financial obligations, indicating good financial health. Accounting liquidity is crucial for managing cash flow and ensuring operational stability.

Accounting Rate of Return

The accounting rate of return calculates the potential profitability of investments based on their expected net income relative to the initial investment cost and serves to evaluate the financial viability of new projects.

Accounting Ratio

An accounting ratio is a financial metric derived from two or more numerical values found in a company's financial statements. It's used to assess a firm's financial health, operational efficiency, and profitability.

Accretive

Accretive refers to any process or transaction, such as a merger or acquisition, that positively influences the value or earnings of a company or financial asset.

Accretive acquisition

An accretive acquisition is when a company purchases another company, and the resulting merger increases the acquiring company's earnings per share, enhancing shareholder value.

Accrual accounting

Accrual accounting is an accounting method where revenue and expenses are recorded when they are earned or incurred, regardless of when the cash transactions occur. This approach can help provide a more accurate picture of a company’s financial position.

Accrue

In finance, to accrue means to accumulate or receive payments or benefits over time, especially with reference to accruing interest or expenses that are recognised in the accounts before being paid.

Acid-test ratio

The acid test ratio, also known as the quick ratio, measures a company's ability to cover its short-term liabilities with its most liquid assets, excluding inventory, and is recognised as a stringent indicator of financial stability.

Acquisition structure

Acquisition structure refers to the financial and legal framework of a deal when a company acquisition happens. This includes the arrangement of payments, asset transfers, and integration strategies.

Active Investing

Active investing involves the frequent buying and selling of assets to exploit short-term market movements in an attempt to profit.

Active Order

An active order is a trading order that has been placed but not yet been executed, and remains active until either being filled or cancelled. An active order could be a limit order, stop order or conditional order, and can help traders manage positions by specifying the price they are willing to pay or accept for an asset.Learn more

Active trading

Active trading refers to frequent buying and selling of assets in an attempt to profit from short-term market movements, rather than long-term 'buy and hold' type investments.

Activist shareholder

An activist shareholder is someone who purchases a large quantity of a company's shares in an attempt to effect significant change within the company, often seeking to improve financial returns and shareholder value.

Adams Express Company

The Adams Express Company definition is of a diversified equity fund that operates as a closed-end fund, investing primarily in US shares. The company was originally established as a freight and cargo business.

Adjusted Present Value (APV)

Adjusted present value (APV) is a valuation method that separates the value of an investment project from the value of its financing side effects, like tax shields, calculating net present value using the unlevered cost of capital.

Advanced Computerized Execution System

The Advanced Computerised Execution System refers to an electronic platform used in trading that uses advanced algorithms and automation to execute large volumes of securities transactions.

AEX index

The AEX Index is a major stock market index tracking the performance of the top stocks traded on the Amsterdam Exchange. It is often seen as a proxy for the general health of the Dutch stock market and overall economy.

After-Hours Trading (AHT)

After hours trading refers to the buying and selling of assets outside the standard trading hours of major exchanges such as the New York Stock Exchange. It might be used in an attempt to capitalise on price movements following key news events, to hedge, or to avoid price gapping. After hours trading can potentially be more volatile, and therefore risky.

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Agency security

An agency security is a form of debt security issued or guaranteed by US government-sponsored enterprises or federal agencies, excluding US Treasury securities, often used for funding specific governmental activities.

Agricultural Bank of China

The Agricultural Bank of China is a major Chinese bank that provides financial services to agricultural, rural, and farmer communities, with the aim of enhancing China's agricultural economy and rural development.

Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend

The Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend is an annual payment made to Alaska residents that meets eligibility criteria, funded by the profits from the state's oil revenue to distribute wealth from natural resources.

Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund

The Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund is a sovereign wealth fund established by the Alberta government to manage and invest the surplus revenues from the province's oil and gas resources for future generations.

Alerts

In finance, alerts are notifications sent to traders or investors about significant events or changes in their portfolio or market conditions, helping them make timely decisions based on the latest information.

Algorithmic trading

Algorithmic trading is a method of executing trades using computer algorithms based on predefined criteria, without human intervention. It capitalises on speed and precision, handling vast amounts of data and executing orders quickly in an attempt to exploit market opportunities across asset classes like shares and forex.Learn more

All in method

The all-in method in finance considers all possible costs and revenues in the analysis or evaluation of a project to ensure all factors are accounted for in decision-making.

Alpha generation platform

An alpha generation platform in finance refers to tools or systems used by traders and investment managers to identify potential investment opportunities that are expected to yield market-beating returns.

Altcoins

Altcoins are cryptocurrencies that propose improvements or differing features and technologies to bitcoin, aiming to address perceived limitations of the most prominent coin.

Alternative asset

An alternative asset is an investment in non-traditional categories such as real estate, commodities, and hedge funds, and can be used to diversify investment portfolios beyond conventional shares.

Alternative display facility

The Alternative Display Facility is an electronic system used in trading to provide exchange services like quote dissemination and trade reporting without providing a full trading venue.

Alternative Investment Fund Managers (AIFM) Directive 2011

AIFM stands for Alternative Investment Fund Managers, referring to managers who handle funds investing in assets including real estate, hedge funds, and private equity.

Alternative public offering

An alternative public offering (APO) is a method for private companies to become publicly traded by merging with an existing public shell company, an alternative to traditional initial public offerings.

Alternative trading system

Alternative Trading Systems (ATS) are trading venues that match buyers and sellers to find counterparties for transactions, alternative to traditional exchanges, often used for trading stocks or bonds.

Alternext

Alternext is a subsidiary market by the stock exchange Euronext designed for small and mid-sized companies that do not meet the regulatory listing requirements of the main stock exchange, providing a potentially easier access point to capital markets.

Altman Z-score

The Altman Z Score is a formula used to predict the likelihood of a company entering bankruptcy within two years, based on various corporate income and balance sheet values.

American depositary receipts (ADRs)

American Depositary Receipts (ADRs) are certificates issued by US banks representing shares in foreign companies, allowing these shares to be traded on US stock exchanges.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is an organisation that oversees the development of standards for products, services, processes, and systems in the US.

Amex Composite Index

The Amex Index refers to a series of stock market indices on the NYSE American, which lists small to medium-sized US and international companies, providing a benchmark for their performance.

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Amex Gold Miners Index

The Amex Gold Miners Index is a stock market index that tracks the performance of major companies involved in the gold mining industry, traded on the NYSE American exchange.

AMX index (Midcap)

The AMX Index is a Dutch stock market index that tracks the performance of mid-cap stocks on the Euronext Amsterdam, providing a benchmark for their economic health.

Ancillary Revenue

Ancillary revenue refers to the income derived from goods and services that complement primary business operations, such as baggage fees for airlines or maintenance services for equipment manufacturers.

Angel Investor

An angel investor is an affluent individual who provides capital for a business start-up, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity, typically focusing on early-stage ventures.

Animal spirits

In finance, animal spirits refer to the emotional and psychological factors that drive traders’ decisions, leading to fluctuations in financial markets beyond what would be expected from rational behaviour.

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Annual equivalent rate (AER)

The annual equivalent rate (AER) is a re-calculation of the rate of interest on a loan or other debt product to give the figure as it would be if it were calculated annually. This is valuable for consumers with debts where interest is worked out monthly or quarterly.

Annual general meeting (AGM)

An annual general meeting (AGM) is a yearly gathering of a company's interested shareholders that allows stakeholders to receive updates on the company's health and ask questions to the board of directors.

Annual percentage rate (APR)

The annual percentage rate (APR) is a detailed measure of the cost of borrowing on an annual basis. It includes interest and any additional fees or charges, making it a key indicator for comparing different loans and credit terms.

Annual Percentage Yield

The annual percentage yield (APY) measures the total amount of interest paid on an account, based on the interest rate and the frequency of compounding. It shows how much a deposit will earn in a year.

Annual total return

Annual total return represents a percentage that shows the total gain or loss of an investment over a one-year period, incorporating all sources of investment income including dividends, interest, and capital gains.

Annualized loss expectancy

Annualised loss expectancy, or ALE, is a risk-management metric used to estimate the monetary loss that an organisation can expect within a year due to risks identified in its operations.

Annuities

Annuities are financial products structured to provide a steady income stream, and are typically used as part of retirement strategies. Payments from annuities can be scheduled over a fixed period or for the recipient's lifetime.

Arab Monetary Fund (AMF)

The Arab Monetary Fund is an Abu-Dhabi based regional financial organisation focused on fostering monetary cooperation and financial stability among its member countries in the Arab world.

Arbitrage

Arbitrage refers to when an asset is simultaneously purchased and sold in different markets in an attempt to profit from price discrepancies, exploiting these differences to earn potentially risk-free returns.

Arbitrage betting

Arbitrage betting is a strategy where bets are placed on all possible outcomes of an event at odds that guarantee a profit regardless of the result, often exploiting differences in bookmaker odds.

Arbitrage pricing theory

Arbitrage pricing theory (APT) describes an asset pricing model that predicts the returns of a financial asset based on its exposure to multiple risk factors, and serves as an alternative to the capital asset pricing model, or CAPM.

Articles of incorporation

Articles of incorporation are legal documents filed with a governmental body to legally document the creation of a corporation. They outline the primary purposes, structure, and other essential details of the company.

AScX index (Small Cap)

The ASCX Index tracks the performance of small market cap companies listed on the Euronext Amsterdam, offering a benchmark for the smaller company segment of the Netherlands stock market.

Ask Price

The ask price is the minimum price a seller is willing to accept for an asset. In trading, it's the lowest price you can buy a security, such as a stock or currency.

Asset

An asset refers to any resource with economic value that an individual, company, or institution owns or controls with the expectation that it will provide future financial benefit. Assets can include shares, commodities, real estate, and currencies, many of which can be traded with derivative products such as CFDs.

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Asset allocation

Asset allocation refers to an investment strategy that aims to balance risk and reward by segmenting a portfolio's assets according to an individual's goals, risk tolerance, and investment horizon.

Asset Classes

An asset class is a group of securities that behave similarly in the marketplace, are subject to the same laws and regulations, and are typically used together as part of an investment strategy, such as shares, commodities, or indices.

Asset purchase

An asset purchase involves acquiring specific assets of a company rather than its stock. This method allows the buyer to obtain only the parts of the business they want, avoiding unwanted liabilities.

Asset stripping

Asset stripping describes the practice of buying a company and then selling its individual assets separately for a profit, often disregarding the long-term health or viability of the original company.

Asset Valuation

Asset valuation is the process of determining the current worth of a financial asset or company. It might involve methods such as discounted cash flow analysis, comparable company analysis, or using market values for assets like stocks and bonds to establish their fair market value.

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Asset-backed commercial paper program

An asset-backed commercial paper program involves issuing short-term securities, backed by a pool of assets, typically used by companies to meet immediate cash flow needs.

Asset-based approach

An asset-based approach is a method of business valuation that focuses on the value of a company's tangible and intangible assets, rather than its earnings or market position.

Assets under management (AUM)

Assets under management refers to the total market value of the investments that a financial institution or asset manager manages on behalf of clients. AUM can include money, real estate, and other assets that are being actively managed.

Association of the Luxembourg Fund Industry

The Association of the Luxembourg Fund Industry (ALFI) is a professional organisation that represents the interests of the Luxembourg investment fund community, promoting its development while ensuring its members operate within the legal and regulatory framework of the market.

Assurance contract

An assurance contract is a financial arrangement, typically related to insurance, where coverage is provided against certain events in exchange for premiums paid by the policyholder. The term is also used in economics to describe a scenario where a project is funded after a set amount of pledges are secured to ensure its viability.

Athex 20

The ATHEX 20 is a stock market index of the twenty largest companies by market capitalisation listed on the Athens Stock Exchange in Greece. It serves as a benchmark for the performance of the Greek equities market.

Attitude to Risk

Attitude to risk refers to the willingness of a trader to take positions that represent a higher chance of losing their capital. More risk-averse traders prefer lower risk assets that may have less upside but also less downside, while risk-seeking traders accept the higher chance of losing money for more potential upside.

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Auction process

The auction process definition explains a method of buying and selling goods or services by offering them up for bid, taking bids, and then selling the item to the highest bidder. It’s conducted in a public setting where multiple potential buyers place competitive bids.

Audited account

An audited account is a financial statement that has been examined and verified by an independent auditor. The audit process ensures that the accounts accurately represent the entity’s financial position and comply with relevant accounting standards and regulations. This provides assurance to stakeholders about the accuracy of financial reporting.

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Auditor

An auditor is someone qualified to produce a set of audited company accounts, and is usually an accountant by profession. They have the duty to scrutinise the numbers presented by management and raise questions where there are concerns.

Australian Securities Exchange

The Australia Securities Exchange is the primary securities exchange in Australia, located in Sydney. It hosts the trading of shares and other securities. The related index market, which lists the leading blue-chip Australian companies, can be traded on Capital.com as the Australia 200.

Automated Market-Making (AMM)

Automated market making (AMM) is a type of trading system that uses algorithms to set buy and sell prices, providing continuous liquidity to markets. AMMs determine prices based on trading volume and demand, functioning without traditional human market makers.

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Automated Trading

Automated trading involves the use of computer programs and algorithms to enter and exit trades based on pre-defined criteria and without human intervention, often used to execute orders rapidly and at optimal prices.Learn more

Automated Valuation Model (AVM)

An automated valuation model, or AVM, describes a service that uses mathematical modelling to value properties by analysing various data points, commonly used by real estate industries and lenders for quick property appraisals.

Average accounting return

The average accounting return is a financial ratio that reflects the average profits earned by an investment relative to its initial cost or average book value.

Average accounts receivable

Used by businesses, average accounts receivable is a measure used to determine the average amount of money being owed by customers over a period, typically calculated by averaging the opening and closing balances of receivables over a fiscal period.

Average Daily Trading Volume

Average daily trading volume refers to the average number of shares or contracts traded for a specific security or in a market during a specific period, typically calculated over a day. This figure helps investors gauge the liquidity and activity level of the trading asset, influencing decisions regarding the ease of entering or exiting positions.Learn more

Average Price

Average price is the mean price of a good or service over a specific time period, often used to smooth out price data to see underlying price trends more clearly.Learn more

Average propensity to consume

The average propensity to consume is an economic measure that shows the proportion of total income or total expenditure spent on consumption. It indicates how spending levels change with income levels.

Average propensity to save

The average propensity to save represents the fraction of total income that a person saves rather than uses for consumption. It is calculated as savings divided by total net income.

Averaging Down

Averaging down is an investment strategy that involves buying additional shares of a stock that one already owns after the price has dropped, decreasing the average price per share.

What Is an ETF? Understanding the Basics of Exchange-Traded Funds

magnifying glass on the background of securities

Exchange traded fund (ETF) is a useful instrument in an investor’s arsenal. Yet what’s the mechanics behind this investing vehicle and how do the ETFs work? Here we take a look at the ETF definition. 

What is an ETF?

An exchange traded fund (ETF) is a fund designed to track a particular group of shares, bonds, commodities, derivative products or other assets. In essence, an ETF is a basket of securities that trades on an exchange. 

Highlights

  • ETFs are baskets of securities that trade on exchanges. 

  • ETFs can consist of a group of various asset classes, including shares, bonds, commodities, and more.

  • There are different types of ETFs such as index-tracking, regional, currency or commodity-based, sector and industry tracking, leveraged and inverse.

  • Benefits of ETFs include diversification, ownership of an asset and that they may involve less transactions than trading assets individually.

  • Risks of ETFs include (but not limited to) market and shutdown risks, and tracking errors.

How do ETFs work 

An ETF is a type of fund that is based on various assets, such as stocks, bonds, commodities and others, and divides ownership of itself into shares that are held by shareholders. The details of the ETF structure usually vary by country or even region of a country.

The shareholders indirectly own the assets of the fund, and they will typically get an annual report. Shareholders are entitled to a share of the profits, such as dividends or interest, and they may get a residual value in case the fund is liquidated. Their ownership interest in the fund can easily be sold and bought.

ETFs don’t redeem or sell their individual shares at net asset value (NAV). Instead, financial institutions purchase and redeem ETF shares directly from the ETF, but only in large blocks, known as creation units. 

The ability to purchase and redeem creation units gives ETFs an arbitrage mechanism intended to minimise the potential deviation between the market price and the NAV of ETF shares.

exchange-trader fund(etf)

ETFs vs mutual funds

Mutual funds and ETFs are both baskets of securities, yet the way the two instruments trade is significantly different. 

Unlike mutual funds, you can trade ETFs on stock exchanges at any time during the trading session, rather than once at the end of the day. An ETF meaning is that of marketable security, which means that its price will change throughout the trading day.

Mutual funds, on the other hand, can only be bought at the end of the end of the trading day after markets close.

Different types of ETFs explained

There are various ETF types investors and traders can choose from. These types can be based on the asset class of the ETF’s components, their geography, industry selection, and other themes. 

Stock index ETF Tracks the performance of a stock index. For example, ​​SPDR S&P 500 ETF Trust (SPY) is one of the many ETFs that tracks the performance of S&P 500 (US500), the US benchmark stock index.
Currency ETF Mimic performance of a currency or a basket of currencies and provide traders with exposure to the forex market.
Sector and industry ETF Track an index of companies within the same industry. For example, nanotechnology or clean energy ETFs.
Geographic ETF Track assets in a specific country or region, for example, European stocks or US bonds.  
Leveraged ETF Use financial derivatives and debt as leverage to amplify the potential returns of an underlying index. Note that leverage can magnify both profits and losses.
Commodity ETF Invested in physical commodities, such as agricultural goods, natural resources, precious metals, and more.
Inverse/short ETF Grows in value - if its benchmark falls in value. This is essentially a way of short-selling via ETFs. 

Active vs Passive ETFs explained

Passive ETFs typically track an index, hence the components of a passive ETFs will always reflect its benchmark. Index-tracking ETFs can be used as a form of passive investing, a hands-off approach where investors rely on broader benchmark performance to generate returns on their portfolios.

Active ETFs, on the other hand, typically involve an investment manager, who pro-actively chooses the fund’s components to beat a benchmark (generate higher returns), and is a form of active investing. Active funds may involve a higher management fee since there is an actual investment professional managing a fund. 

Benefits of ETFs

  • Diversification: ETFs allow investors to hold a variety of assets in one fund, hence they increase portfolio’s diversification. 

  • Ownership of the asset: ETFs imply ownership of the underlying assets they consist of. For example, a stock ETF’s holders would be entitled to shareholder rights such as dividend payments. 

  • Less transactions: ETFs allow investors to buy many assets in one trade, hence imply less transactions. 

Risks of ETFs

  • Market risk: There is always a market risk when trading ETFs. Remember, markets are unpredictable and can go up and down. You should conduct your own due diligence before trading. 

  • Tracking error: Although ETFs tracking errors are rare, and typically insignificant, they can sometimes accumulate to a gap of several percentage points between a fund’s performance and its benchmark. 

  • Shutdown risk: While ETFs are extremely popular overall, there are still some funds that lack love from investors. Low-demand funds may be liquidated, and although shareholders will get paid in cash, the process may be very uncomfortable. 

Conclusion

ETFs are baskets of securities that trade on exchanges in the same manner as stocks do. That’s their main difference from mutual funds, which can only be bought at the end of the trading day.

Investors can choose between a wide variety of ETF types including index-tracking funds, currency and commodity ETFs, sector-specific and regional funds, leveraged and inverse. Active ETFs are managed by an investment manager and may involve a higher fee, while passive ETFs typically track a benchmark. 

ETFs can provide diversification and may be suitable for those investors who want to own the underlying asset, plus want to be involved in less transactions. However, there are also risks to ETFs, such as market and shutdown risks, tracking errors, and more.

FAQs

How do ETFs work?

The ETF shareholders indirectly own the assets of the fund, and they will typically get an annual report. Shareholders are entitled to a share of the profits, such as dividends or interest, and they may get a residual value in case the fund is liquidated. Their ownership interest in the fund can easily be sold and bought.

ETFs don’t redeem or sell their individual shares at net asset value (NAV). Instead, financial institutions purchase and redeem ETF shares directly from the ETF, but only in large blocks, known as creation units. 

The ability to purchase and redeem creation units gives ETFs an arbitrage mechanism intended to minimise the potential deviation between the market price and the NAV of ETF shares.

What is an ETF account?

An ETF account is a trading account that holds exchange traded funds (ETFs).

How many ETFs are there?

According to Statista, there were 8,754 ETFs globally in 2022.