What is utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism is a branch of normative ethics that forms the basis of study in ethical behaviour. Utilitarianism derives its name from “utility”, which is a term used in economics to quantify the amount of pleasure or happiness received.

Basically, utilitarianism means to act or make judgements based on the option that produces more good for more individuals. The utilitarian definition states the right action is the one that promotes the most happiness for everyone, not only the decision-maker. When viewed through a political, economic or financial lens this would mean aligning public resources to provide the greatest overall societal benefits while harming the least number of people in the process.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy defines utilitarianism as follows:

“Utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good.”

History of utilitarianism

Classic utilitarianism ethics was popularised by the English philosophers Jeremy Bentham and expanded on by John Stuart Mill during the 18th century.

“The Classical Utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonists about value. They also held that we ought to maximise the good, that is, bring about the greatest amount of good for the greatest number,” Stanford Encyclopedia stated.

Root variations of the theory can be traced back to ancient times including Greek philosophers and the 8th century Indian philosopher Śāntideva, who explained utilitarianism as preventing pain and suffering for all present and future sentient beings.

Principles of utilitarianism

According to Emrys Westacott, professor of philosophy at Alfred University, New York, the theory of utilitarianism is built on three main principles:

Pleasure or happiness is the only thing that has intrinsic value.

To have intrinsic value is to be inherently good, meaning that the world is better because of this thing or action. Utilitarianism states that happiness or pleasure are the only things of true intrinsic value.

Actions are deemed right if they increase happiness and wrong if they increase unhappiness.

This principle of utilitarianism stirs debate as some argue that the motivation behind the action should also be considered. In addition, there are arguments that say causing unjust harm to a few to make a larger number of people happy is not justifiable.

Everyone’s happiness is equal.

This may seem like a basic principle but in the 18th century this was a wildly progressive concept. Bentham used this principle to argue for such things as equality and animal rights. The basis of this utilitarianism example is that you should strive to increase overall happiness and not just your own.

Principles of utilitarianism

Criticism of utilitarianism

Utilitarianism does face much criticism due to its black and white interpretation of right and wrong. One of the main critiques being that there is rarely perfect information available to the decision-maker regarding all the potential outcomes of their actions. Mill rebutted this objection by saying that it is enough to have the intention of causing the most happiness to confer the morality of the action.

“The creed which accepts as the foundations of morals ‘utility’ or the ‘greatest happiness principle’ holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure,” Mill said in Utilitarianism.

The idea that overall happiness should be prioritised over individual happiness has also caused significant debate. Doctors face this dilemma every day when they could theoretically stop treating a single patient who requires significant care to save more patients who require less care. Modern utilitarianism has included the stipulation that actions that produce more happiness overall should still not cause unjust harm to any individual.